• Processing, densification, and interfacial engineering emerge as core determinants of microstructure and mechanical performance in metal–ceramic systems, spanning dense SiC‑AIN, bonded layers, porous ceramics, and processing-induced residual stresses [1][3][5][10][11][6][12].

• Whisker reinforcement and bridging phenomena drive substantial toughening in ceramic composites, with orientation, debonding, and intact whiskers behind crack tips documented in alumina, SiC whisker systems, and TZP matrices [2][4][7][15][20][17].

• Fracture toughness evaluation and strength testing methods underpin ceramic reliability, evidenced by single-edge precracked-beam and biaxial-flexure techniques and comparative fracture-resistance analyses [13][19][17].

• Interfacial stresses, thermal mismatch effects, and bonding strategies shape failure modes and reliability in metal/ceramic assemblies and microelectronics packaging [6][3][16].

• Transformation toughening and phase-stability in zirconia-based ceramics underpin toughness enhancements, including transformation mechanisms and whisker-reinforced TZP systems [14][8][15][20].